Global Non-Woven Fabric Market (2025-2031) | Supply, Size, Competition, Strategy, Consumer Insights, Trends, Share, Forecast, Investment Trends, Industry, Outlook, Drivers, Analysis, Value, Pricing Analysis, Opportunities, Segmentation, Revenue, Demand, Growth, Competitive, Challenges, Companies, Strategic Insights, Segments, Restraints

Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Size & Growth Rate

Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Overview

The global non-woven fabric market is witnessing significant growth driven by factors such as the increasing demand from various end-use industries including healthcare, automotive, construction, and personal care. Non-woven fabrics offer advantages such as cost-effectiveness, durability, and sustainability, which have contributed to their widespread adoption. The market is also benefiting from technological advancements leading to the development of innovative products with enhanced performance characteristics. Geographically, Asia Pacific is the dominant region in the global non-woven fabric market, owing to the presence of a large manufacturing base and growing industrialization in countries like China and India. Key players in the market are focusing on strategic initiatives such as product launches, partnerships, and acquisitions to strengthen their market presence and expand their product offerings.

Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Trends and Opportunities

The Global Non-Woven Fabric Market is experiencing steady growth due to increasing demand in various industries such as healthcare, automotive, and construction. The market is driven by factors such as the growing awareness of hygiene and cleanliness, rising disposable income, and the shift towards sustainable and eco-friendly products. Technological advancements in non-woven fabric production techniques are also fueling market growth. Opportunities in the market include the development of innovative applications in sectors like packaging, agriculture, and personal care products. Additionally, the increasing focus on biodegradable non-woven fabrics presents a promising avenue for market expansion. Overall, the Global Non-Woven Fabric Market is poised for continued growth and diversification in the coming years.

Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Challenges

The Global Non-Woven Fabric Market faces several challenges, including fluctuating raw material prices, intense competition from traditional woven fabrics, and the need for continuous innovation to meet evolving customer demands. Sustainability concerns regarding the disposal and environmental impact of non-woven fabrics also present a challenge, prompting the industry to focus on developing eco-friendly and biodegradable alternatives. Additionally, the market is impacted by regulatory changes and trade barriers in different regions, affecting supply chains and market dynamics. Overall, companies in the Global Non-Woven Fabric Market need to navigate these challenges strategically by investing in research and development, adopting sustainable practices, and building resilient supply chains to maintain a competitive edge in the market.

Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Drivers

The Global Non-Woven Fabric Market is primarily driven by the increasing demand from various end-use industries such as healthcare, automotive, and construction due to its superior properties like durability, absorbency, softness, and liquid repellence. The growing awareness about hygiene and healthcare standards is also a significant driver for the market, leading to a surge in demand for non-woven fabrics in products like surgical gowns, diapers, and wipes. Additionally, the rise in disposable income in emerging economies, changing lifestyle preferences, and advancements in non-woven fabric technologies are further propelling market growth. The sustainability and eco-friendly nature of non-woven fabrics are also contributing to their popularity among consumers and manufacturers, driving the market forward.

Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Government Policy

Government policies related to the Global Non-Woven Fabric Market primarily focus on environmental regulations, trade agreements, and subsidies. Many governments are implementing strict regulations to promote sustainable production practices and reduce the environmental impact of non-woven fabric manufacturing processes. Additionally, trade agreements play a significant role in shaping the market dynamics by influencing import/export tariffs and quotas. Governments may also provide subsidies or financial incentives to domestic non-woven fabric manufacturers to promote local production and boost the industry`s competitiveness. Overall, government policies in the Global Non-Woven Fabric Market are aimed at fostering sustainable growth, ensuring fair trade practices, and supporting the development of the industry.

Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Future Outlook

The Global Non-Woven Fabric Market is expected to witness significant growth in the coming years due to increasing demand across various industries such as healthcare, automotive, and construction. The market is driven by factors such as growing awareness about the benefits of non-woven fabrics, their cost-effectiveness, and superior properties compared to traditional textiles. Additionally, the rise in disposable income, changing lifestyles, and increasing population are further boosting the demand for non-woven fabrics. Technological advancements in manufacturing processes and the development of sustainable non-woven materials are anticipated to create new opportunities for market growth. However, challenges related to recycling and disposal of non-woven fabrics may hinder the market`s growth to some extent. Overall, the Global Non-Woven Fabric Market is projected to expand steadily in the foreseeable future.

Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Regional Insights

In the global non-woven fabric market, Asia Pacific is expected to dominate in terms of market share, driven by the rapid industrialization and growing demand from sectors such as healthcare, automotive, and construction. North America and Europe are also significant markets due to the presence of established industries and stringent regulations promoting the use of eco-friendly materials. In the Middle East and Africa region, the market is anticipated to witness steady growth, supported by increasing investments in infrastructure and healthcare sectors. Latin America is projected to experience moderate growth, fueled by rising disposable incomes and expanding end-user industries. Overall, the global non-woven fabric market is poised for continued expansion across all regions, driven by technological advancements and the increasing focus on sustainable production practices.

Key Highlights of the Report:

• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Outlook
• Market Size of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market, 2024
• Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market, 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Trend Evolution
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Drivers and Challenges
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Price Trends
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Porter's Five Forces
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Industry Life Cycle
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Technology for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Spun-Bond for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Wet Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Dry Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Material for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyester for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polypropylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyethylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Rayon for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By End-User Industry for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Construction for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Textiles for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Healthcare for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Automotive for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Global Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Technology for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Spun-Bond for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Wet Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Dry Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Material for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyester for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polypropylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyethylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Rayon for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By End-User Industry for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Construction for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Textiles for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Healthcare for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Automotive for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of United States of America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Canada Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Rest of North America Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Technology for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Spun-Bond for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Wet Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Dry Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Material for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyester for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polypropylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyethylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Rayon for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By End-User Industry for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Construction for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Textiles for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Healthcare for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Automotive for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Latin America (LATAM) Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Brazil Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Mexico Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Argentina Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Rest of LATAM Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Technology for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Spun-Bond for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Wet Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Dry Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Material for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyester for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polypropylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyethylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Rayon for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By End-User Industry for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Construction for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Textiles for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Healthcare for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Automotive for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of China Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of India Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Japan Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Rest of Asia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Technology for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Spun-Bond for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Wet Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Dry Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Material for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyester for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polypropylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyethylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Rayon for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By End-User Industry for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Construction for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Textiles for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Healthcare for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Automotive for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of South Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Nigeria Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Egypt Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Rest of Africa Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Technology for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Spun-Bond for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Wet Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Dry Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Material for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyester for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polypropylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyethylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Rayon for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By End-User Industry for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Construction for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Textiles for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Healthcare for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Automotive for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of United Kingdom Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of France Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Germany Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Rest of Europe Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Technology for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Spun-Bond for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Wet Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Dry Laid for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Material for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyester for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polypropylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Polyethylene for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Rayon for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By End-User Industry for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Construction for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Textiles for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Healthcare for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Automotive for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume By Others for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Saudi Arabia Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of UAE Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Turkey Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Historical Data and Forecast of Rest of Middle East Non-Woven Fabric Market Revenues & Volume for the Period 2021 - 2031
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market - Key Performance Indicators
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market - Import Export Trade Statistics
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market - Opportunity Assessment By Countries
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market - Opportunity Assessment By Technology
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market - Opportunity Assessment By Material
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market - Opportunity Assessment By End-User Industry
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market - Top Companies Market Share
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market - Top Companies Profiles
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market - Comparison of Players in Technical and Operating Parameters
• Global Non-Woven Fabric Market - Strategic Recommendations